4.+Moral+Status+of+a+Gene

Arguments for moral status Arguments against moral status
 * Overview**
 * "The sacred gene"
 * INDENT: Human DNA has been used as a symbol of individual human identity, and of the human spirit, soul, or essence.
 * Richard Dawkins
 * INDENT: Argues that genes are the true locus of human agency.
 * Mary Anne Warren
 * INDENT: The parts argument
 * INDENT: Sentience and consciousness
 * INDENT: Problems with the sacred gene argument
 * Environmental factors and epigenetics


 * //A determination of the moral status of a given gene has implications for deciding if genetic therapy is ethically appropriate.//**

**The Sacred Gene**

**Richard Dawkins**
 * Well known for his work in evolutionary biology and creationism.
 * Argues that genes are the true locus of human agency.
 * "Individuals are not stable things, they are fleeting ... the genes ... change partners and march on ...they are the replicators and we are their survival machines. When we have served our purpose we are cast aside. But genes are denizens of geological time; genes are forever."

REFERENCES: Dawkins, Richard (1976). //The Selfish Gene//. New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-286092-5.


 * Mary Anne Warren**
 * Argues that genes do not have independent moral status.
 * Key components of her position:
 * INDENT: The parts argument
 * INDENT: Sentience and consciousness
 * Rebuttal of the "sacred gene" argument

REFERENCE: Anne Warren, M. (2008) //The Moral Status of the Gene, in A Companion to Genethics// (eds J. Burley and J. Harris), Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford, UK. doi: 10.1002/9780470756423.ch11


 * The Parts of Organisms Do Not Have Moral Status**
 * One reason that we regard living organisms as worthy of moral status is because they are systems of their own that exhibit a purpose. They are organized to maintain and reproduce themselves, and to interact with their environments in ways that have evolved because they tended to serve these ends.
 * Parts of organisms (i.e. a foot or an organ) only act in the manifestation of the entire organisms purpose, and function to contribute to the survival of the entire organism, and not solely itself.


 * Consider for a moment:**
 * Tissues and organs take on specific forms and functions in a given organism.
 * This is because the traits these components exhibit promote the reproductive success of the organism.
 * The "goals" of a liver, for example, are directed in ways that generally differ from the goals of the organism (i.e. the liver detoxifies drugs and stores glycogen).
 * Therefore, it is inappropriate to attribute independent moral status to the parts of organisms.


 * Sentience and Consciousness**
 * Sentience: the ability to feel or perceive.
 * INDENT: The experience of pain, pleasure, and other mental state occurs at the level of the organism.
 * One may feel pain in his or her hand, although it is unlikely that the hand has private pains unfelt by the individual. In other words, organs/tissues/cells do not have central nervous systems of their own.


 * Sentience and Consciousness cont.**
 * We can therefore argue that we have special obligations to organisms, such as to not cause them pain or suffering.
 * This obligation does not translate to parts of organisms, as they do not experience pain and pleasure.
 * A similar argument for consciousness and memory:
 * INDENT: Some organisms have //moral agency//, meaning that they posses a level of sophistication allowing them to tell right from wrong, and act in the pursuit of conscious goals.
 * INDENT: Parts and organs are not moral agents, and do not have the rights that flow from moral agency.


 * Warren's Conclusions from the Previous Arguments**
 * We can extend the previous arguments to DNA.
 * In the context of gene therapy, Wareen contests that:
 * //There is no a priori reason not to permit genetic alterations, provided that we know enough to avoid the associated risks to current and future persons.//


 * Problems with the Sacred Gene Argument**
 * Warren contests that the empirical evidence is not sufficient to hold genes in such high regard.
 * //"DNA is not the sole source and shaper of organisms, and neither is it an immortal being. It is not an immaterial entity that is eternally reincarnated in new physical bodies. It is a physical part of living and mortal organisms, one that has a central but not omnipotent role in the organism's development, functioning, and reproduction."//
 * Key components:
 * INDENT: It takes more than DNA to create a functioning organism. For example, for a zygote to fully develop there needs to be:
 * INDENT: Nutrients from the environment
 * INDENT: A correct temperature range for biochemical reactions to occur.
 * Environmental factors can influence the expression of certain genes.


 * Epigenetics**
 * "Above the genes."
 * Modifications that are caused due to environmental factors, among other things.
 * Epigenetic modifications cause certain genes to be unexpressed, although does not change the sequence of the genes.
 * INDENT: Some individuals may contest that the sequence, or "information," contained in ones genome is the most basic, or underlying, element that acts to create the organism.
 * There is evidence that epigenetic "information" can be passed on to progeny.


 * NOTE: Talk about here how this has been shown in plants and fungi but the debate is still out concerning mammals.
 * REFERENCES
 * []
 * Jablonka E., Raz G. 2009. Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: prevalence, mechanisms, and implications for the study of heredity and evolution. //The Quarterly Review of Biology// 84(2):131–176.


 * Epigenetics cont.**
 * An example of an epigenetic process is genomic imprinting.
 * INDENT: Genomic imprinting involves DNA methylation and histone modifications.
 * INDENT: Involved in the manifestation of Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes.

**Prader–Willi Syndrome**
 * Symptoms:
 * INDENT: Short stature
 * INDENT: Poor motor skills
 * INDENT: Weight gain
 * INDENT: Underdeveloped sex organs
 * INDENT: Mild mental retardation and learning disabilities

REFERENCES: []

**Prader–Willi Syndrome cont.**
 * Caused by genomic imprinting on a set of genes within chromosome 15.
 * Paternal chromosome undergoes imprinting.
 * Most cases of PWS are due to a spontaneous genetic error that occurs at or near the time of conception for unknown reasons.




 * NOTE: In a very small percentage of cases (2 percent or less), a genetic mutation that does not affect the parent is passed on to the child, and in these families more than one child may be affected.
 * REFERENCES: []


 * Angelman Syndrome**